Geographical Location and Boundaries
Bihar, an eastern Indian state with substantial historical importance, is strategically bordered by several key regions. To the north, it shares a border with Nepal, while West Bengal lies to its northeast, and Uttar Pradesh to its west. A significant geographical alteration occurred in November 2000 when Jharkhand was created, redefining Bihar’s southern and southeastern boundaries. This new state was carved out from what were previously Bihar’s southern provinces.
Capital City and Historical Significance
Patna, the capital of Bihar, functions as the state’s primary administrative and cultural center. Bihar’s early history is marked by its central role as an epicenter of imperial power and a cradle of Indian culture and civilization for many centuries. The state’s very name, “Bihar,” originates from the Sanskrit term vihara, which translates to Buddhist monastery. This etymology highlights Bihar’s historical significance as a prominent center for Buddhist learning and the establishment of monastic communities during ancient times.
Area and Population
Encompassing an area of approximately 38,301 square miles (99,200 square kilometers), Bihar is characterized by its high population density. The 2011 census recorded the state’s population as exceeding 103 million people. This combination of rich historical heritage and a strategic geographical position ensures that Bihar remains a vital component of India’s cultural and historical landscape.
Land (Relief, drainage, and soils)
North Bihar Plain: Geography and Challenges
The North Bihar Plain, an integral part of the middle Gangetic Plain, is characterized by its flat alluvial terrain, generally below 75 meters (250 feet) in elevation, excluding the Himalayan foothills in the northwest. This region’s defining feature is its vulnerability to flooding, stemming from the numerous rivers originating in the Nepal Himalayas. These rivers, including the Ghaghara, Gandak, Baghmati, Kosi, and Mahananda, are prone to frequently altering their courses as they flow towards the Ganges, creating depressions and lakes that indicate former river channels. The Kosi River, historically notorious for its devastating floods and thus known as the “Sorrow of Bihar,” is now managed through artificial embankments.
Soil Composition and Seismic Activity in North Bihar
The soil composition of the North Bihar Plain varies across the region. West of the Burhi Gandak River, chalky, light-textured alluvium, predominantly sandy loam, is prevalent. To the east, nonchalky, heavy-textured alluvium, consisting of clay and clay loam, dominates the soil composition. Furthermore, the region is located within the Himalayan earthquake zone, making it susceptible to seismic activity. The area experienced severe earthquakes in 1934 and 1988, which caused widespread destruction and significant loss of life.
South Bihar Plain: Landscape and Soil
In contrast to the North Bihar Plain, the South Bihar Plain presents a more diverse landscape, marked by numerous hills rising from the level alluvium. The rivers in this region, with the exception of the Son, are smaller, and their water is primarily used for irrigation. The soil in this area is mainly older alluvium, composed of darkish clay or yellowish loam, with poorer, sandy soils being more common in the southern parts.
Kaimur Plateau: A Distinctive Feature
To the southwest, beyond the Son River valley, lies the Kaimur Plateau, which is characterized by horizontal layers of sandstone over a limestone base, adding another dimension to Bihar’s varied geography.
Weather
Hot-Weather Season
The region experiences a hot-weather season from March to mid-June. During this period, consistently high temperatures prevail. May typically records the highest average temperatures, often exceeding 90°F (32°C) across much of the region, except for the extreme northern areas.
Southwest Monsoon Season
Following the hot season, the southwest monsoon rains arrive, lasting from mid-June to October. This season provides the majority of the annual precipitation. Rainfall amounts vary across the region, ranging from approximately 40 inches (1,000 mm) in the west-central areas to over 60 inches (1,500 mm) in the extreme north. July and August experience the heaviest rainfall during the monsoon season.
Cold-Weather Season
The cold-weather season extends from November to February, offering a more temperate climate. January is the coolest month, characterized by average temperatures rising to the low 70s F (around 22°C). This season is generally considered the most agreeable and pleasant time of year.
Plant and animal Life
Forest Composition and Distribution
Bihar’s natural vegetation is primarily deciduous forests, although the actual forested area represents a small portion of the state’s land. These forests are mainly located in the sub-Himalayan foothills. The forests that once covered the plains have largely disappeared due to agricultural expansion. The sub-Himalayan forests contain resin-yielding sal trees (Shorea robusta), along with bamboo, reeds, and grasses. In the plains, common tree species include banyans (Ficus benghalensis or F. indica), Bo trees (F. religiosa), and palmyra palms.
Wildlife and Biodiversity
The less accessible forest regions of Bihar are home to various large mammals, including Bengal tigers, leopards, elephants, and different species of deer. Crocodiles are abundant along the Kosi River. Substantial populations of the endangered adjutant stork (Leptoptilos dubius) were discovered in the Kosi and Ganges floodplains during the early 21st century. Smaller mammals, various bird species, reptiles, and fish are commonly found throughout Bihar.
Population
Religious Composition
The population of Bihar is primarily categorized by religion, social caste and lineage, and language, rather than distinct ethnic affiliations. Hinduism is the dominant religion in Bihar. Islam represents the largest minority, with concentrations predominantly in northern Bihar, especially around Purnia.
Social Stratification
The Hindu community is further stratified into several tiers. Upper castes, including Brahmans, Bhumihars, Rajputs, and Kayasthas, traditionally hold elite status. Backward Classes, such as Yadavas, Kurmis, and Banias, are recognized as socially and economically disadvantaged. Scheduled Castes, historically known as “untouchables,” comprise groups like Chamars/Mochis, Dusadhs, and Mushars. Smaller communities of indigenous peoples, designated as Scheduled Tribes, exist outside the caste system; the majority are Hindu, with a Christian minority also present.
Linguistic Diversity
Linguistically, Indo-European languages prevail in Bihar. These include Hindi, Urdu (mainly spoken by Muslims), and the Bihari languages of Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Magahi. Bhojpuri is the primary language in the western districts of Bhojpur, Rohtas (Sasaram), Saran, and both East and West Champaran. Maithili is spoken in the regions of Darbhanga and Saharsa, while Magahi is used in Patna, Gaya, and Munger. Austroasiatic languages are spoken by the Munda, Santhal, and Ho indigenous minorities, and the Oraon Scheduled Tribe communicates in a Dravidian language.
Demographic Trends
High Population Density and Growth:
Bihar, located in eastern India, is marked by a significant population density, surpassing 850 people per square mile (over 325 per square kilometer), establishing it as one of India’s most densely populated states. In the early 2000s, Bihar faced a remarkably high rate of population increase, adding to the existing demographic pressures.
Rural Distribution and River Valley Habitation:
The population of Bihar is largely distributed across rural areas, with a considerable number of residents living in closely spaced villages scattered throughout the cultivated plains. The ability to manage and control the Kosi River has been vital in maintaining stable habitation in its river valley, allowing communities to thrive in this fertile region.
Irrigation and Urban Centers:
Moreover, the presence of a sophisticated irrigation infrastructure supports the South Bihar Plain’s capacity to support a large population, ensuring agricultural productivity. Key urban centers within Bihar, including Patna, Gaya, Bhagalpur, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Munger, and Bihar Sharif, function as significant focal points for economic, social, and administrative activities within the state.
Economy of Bihar
Agriculture in Bihar
Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in Bihar, employing roughly 75% of the state’s population. This makes Bihar a significant producer of fruits and vegetables within India.
Economic Disparities
Despite progress in sectors like mining and manufacturing towards the end of the 20th century, Bihar’s per capita income has lagged behind the national average. Consequently, a large percentage of Bihar’s population continues to live below the poverty line.
Impact of Jharkhand’s Formation
The separation of Jharkhand from Bihar in the early 2000s further complicated Bihar’s economic situation, presenting additional challenges to the state’s development.
Agriculture
Overview of Agriculture in Bihar
Agriculture is a vital sector in Bihar, where about half of the state’s land is used for cultivation. Due to high population density, the land is intensively farmed, which limits opportunities to increase the amount of land used for agriculture. Bihar’s climate is transitional, resulting in a variety of crops that thrive in both wet and dry conditions.
Crop Production
Rice is the most important crop in Bihar, followed by wheat, corn (maize), barley, and pulses. Sugarcane is mainly grown in the northwestern part of the state. Jute, which needs hot and humid weather, is mostly found in the eastern plains. The state has three main harvest seasons: the bhadai harvest, which includes corn planted in May-June and harvested in August-September; the aghani harvest, which focuses on rice planted in mid-June and harvested in December; and the rabi harvest, which primarily involves wheat that is harvested in the spring from March to May.
Fruits, Vegetables, and Cash Crops
Fruits and vegetables are widely grown in Bihar, with the Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga areas famous for their mangoes, bananas, and litchi fruits. Vegetable farming is significant near cities, and the potato-growing region near Bihar Sharif in Patna district is well-known for producing high-quality seed potatoes. Chilies and tobacco are also important cash crops, grown along the banks of the Ganges River.
Resources and Power
Although the separation of the mineral-rich Chota Nagpur plateau to form Jharkhand significantly depleted Bihar’s mineral resources, the state still possesses localized deposits of economically important minerals. Bauxite, a key ore for aluminum production, is found in the Munger district. The Rohtas district is endowed with dolomite, glass sand, cement mortar, and other minerals essential for construction and manufacturing industries. Furthermore, the Gaya, Nawada, and Munger regions contain mica deposits, a mineral valued for its insulating properties. Gaya and Munger, along with Muzaffarpur, also contribute to salt production within the state.
Regarding energy, Bihar relies on a limited number of thermal and hydroelectric power stations to meet its electricity demands. The partition that created Jharkhand resulted in the loss of several power stations, exacerbating the state’s energy challenges. Consequently, in the early 21st century, a substantial portion of Bihar’s villages, less than half, had consistent access to electricity, highlighting the need for improvements in the state’s energy infrastructure.
Manufacturing
Industrial Development in Bihar
Bihar has historically experienced a slow pace of industrial development. To address this, the state government has established several agencies aimed at accelerating industrial growth. The manufacturing sector in Bihar is characterized by a significant proportion of workers employed in household industries. The remaining industrial workforce is primarily engaged in steel and other metal-based industries, as well as food-processing industries.
Key Industries and Manufacturing Centers
The state’s larger industrial operations are mainly concentrated in specific areas. Dalmianagar is known for its paper, cement, and chemical industries, while Baruni is a hub for petrochemical production. Patna features light manufacturing activities. Industries based on agriculture include sugar refining, tobacco processing, silk production, and jute milling, reflecting the state’s agricultural base.
Cottage Industries and Traditional Crafts
Traditional cottage industries hold a prominent place in Bihar’s economy. These include sericulture, involving the raising of silkworms and the production of raw silk, as well as the production of lac, a resin used to create shellac. Other notable cottage industries are glasswork, handloom products, brassware, and pottery. Furthermore, the unique paintings of mythological stories produced on cloth in the Madhubani region have gained international recognition and contribute to foreign exchange earnings.
Transportation
Decline of Waterways
The waterways of Bihar, once a vital mode of transportation and commerce, have diminished in importance over time. This decline can be attributed to the development of alternative transportation infrastructure.
Road Network
Roads have become a significant mode of transport in Bihar. While all-weather roads connect to slightly more than one-third of the state’s villages, a network of national highways traverses the region. A notable example is the Grand Trunk Road, one of India’s oldest roadways, which passes through Bihar. Road infrastructure is most developed around Patna, benefiting from improvements made during World War II due to Allied operations in the area.
Railway System
The railway line connecting Kolkata (Calcutta) and Delhi, inaugurated in 1864, also runs through Bihar. Due to the state’s high population density, the railways handle a substantial volume of passenger and freight traffic. However, the construction of railway bridges across the rivers has proven challenging, resulting in rail lines often running parallel to the rivers. This alignment can lead to circuitous routes and protracted travel times between key towns.
Air Travel
Air transportation is available in Bihar, with regularly scheduled airlines serving Patna. This provides a faster, though often more expensive, alternative for long-distance travel compared to road and rail.
Government and society
Governmental Structure
Bihar’s governmental structure, mirroring that of most Indian states, is established by the Indian Constitution of 1950. The state operates with a bicameral legislature, comprising the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) as the upper house and the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) as the lower house. The governor, appointed by the President of India, serves as the head of the state but acts on the advice of the chief minister, who leads the Council of Ministers. The state’s bureaucratic operations are managed from the Patna secretariat, headed by a chief secretary, who oversees the administrative functions of the state.
Administrative Divisions
For administrative efficiency, Bihar is divided into multiple divisions, which are further subdivided into districts. At the district level, a deputy commissioner is responsible for the administration. Subdivisions within each district have their own administrative officers, ensuring that governance is accessible and responsive at the local level. This hierarchical structure ensures that governmental services and oversight are distributed effectively across the state.
Judicial and Law Enforcement Systems
The state’s police force is led by an inspector general, with superintendents managing law enforcement at the district level. The judicial system is anchored by the High Court in Patna, which includes a chief justice and a panel of judges. Below the High Court, the judicial framework includes district courts, subdivisional courts, munsifs’ courts (staffed by subordinate judicial officers), and village councils. This multi-tiered system ensures access to justice at various levels of society, from local villages to the state level.
Health and welfare
Healthcare Infrastructure
Medical facilities in the region are progressively improving; however, significant inadequacies persist outside of urban centers. Rural villages are primarily served by allopathic (traditional Western medicine) and ancient Indian medical (Ayurvedic) dispensaries, offering basic healthcare services to the population.
Alternative and Traditional Medicine
In addition to allopathic and Ayurvedic medicine, Unanī (traditional Muslim) and homeopathic systems of medicine maintain considerable popularity among the residents, providing alternative treatment options and reflecting the diverse cultural influences within the region.
Major Medical Centers
Large, well-equipped hospitals and medical colleges are strategically located in major cities such as Patna, Darbhanga, and Bhagalpur. These facilities serve as regional hubs for advanced medical care, research, and the training of healthcare professionals.
Common Diseases and Public Health
Respiratory diseases, dysentery, and diarrhea remain prominent causes of mortality, highlighting the challenges in sanitation, hygiene, and access to clean water. While cholera and malaria are infrequent occurrences, successful eradication programs have eliminated smallpox and bubonic plague, demonstrating advancements in public health initiatives.
Education
Literacy Rate in Bihar
Despite a near tripling of the literacy rate in the latter half of the 20th century, reaching approximately half of the state’s population, Bihar’s literacy ranking among Indian states remains low. A notable disparity exists between genders, with the literacy rate for men considerably exceeding that of women. The state government has set a goal to provide education to all children up to the age of 14, and in the early 21st century, a majority of eligible children were enrolled in primary schools. However, economic constraints often compel students to enter the workforce, resulting in a significant drop-off in enrollment at the secondary level. Vocational and technical schools receive support from various government departments.
Higher Education Institutions
Bihar is home to several prominent institutions of higher learning. Patna University, established in 1917 and located in Patna, stands as the oldest and most prestigious among them. Other notable universities include Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Bihar University (formerly Bihar University), situated in Muzaffarpur and founded in 1960, and Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University (formerly Bhagalpur University), established in 1960 in Bhagalpur. The latter two universities offer graduate programs and oversee a network of affiliated colleges.
Cultural life
Linguistic and Cultural Regions
Bihar’s cultural regions are closely linked to its linguistic landscape. Maithili, spoken in the ancient Mithila region (Tirhut), stands out as the only Bihari language with its own script, Tirhuta, and a notable literary heritage. The region is characterized by its orthodox traditions and the Maithil Brahman way of life. Vidyapati, a renowned 15th-century Maithili writer, is celebrated for his devotional and love lyrics. While Bhojpuri lacks a substantial written literature, it thrives on a rich oral narrative tradition. Similarly, Magahi boasts a vibrant oral literary heritage. The plains of North and South Bihar have also made significant contributions to modern Hindi and Urdu literature.
Tribal Culture and Traditions
Many Scheduled Tribe villages in Bihar feature distinct cultural spaces, including a dancing floor, a sacred grove (sarna) for worship led by a village priest, and a bachelor’s dormitory (dhumkuria). The weekly market, or hat, plays a vital role in the tribal economies. Tribal festivals are occasions for celebration, with Sarhul marking the flowering of the sal trees and Soharai celebrated after the rice harvest.
Religious and Cultural Sites
Bihar is rich in religious and cultural landmarks. Nalanda is home to the ancient Nalanda Buddhist monastic center. The Rajgir Hills area, with its ancient and contemporary temples and shrines, attracts visitors of diverse faiths. Pawapuri marks the site where Mahavira, the Jainism teacher, attained nirvana. Gaya is a significant Hindu pilgrimage site, while nearby Bodh Gaya, where the Buddha achieved enlightenment, is the most sacred site in Buddhism; the Mahabodhi temple complex at Bodh Gaya was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2002. Hariharkshetra, near Sonpur, is known for its large animal fair held every November. Holi and Chhath are among the numerous Hindu celebrations held in Bihar, with Chhath being a tribute to the Sun, primarily by women.
History of Bihar
Early Kingdoms and Religious Developments
During the Early Vedic period, around 1500 BCE, the plains of Bihar were home to several significant kingdoms. North of the Ganges River lay Videha, famed for its king who was the father of Princess Sita, a central figure in the Hindu epic Ramayana. Simultaneously, the kingdom of Magadha, with its capital at Rajagriha (modern Rajgir), and the kingdom of Anga, with its capital at Campa (near Bhagalpur), thrived in the region. Later, a new kingdom emerged in southern Videha, centered at Vaishali. By approximately 700 BCE, Vaishali and Videha were replaced by the Vrijji confederacy, considered history’s first republican state. The 6th century BCE witnessed the rise of significant religious movements in Magadha, with the Buddha developing his teachings and Mahavira, born in Vaishali, propagating and reforming Jainism.
Magadha Empire and Subsequent Dynasties
Around 475 BCE, the capital of the Magadha empire shifted to Pataliputra (modern Patna), where it remained under the rule of Emperor Ashoka and the Gupta dynasty until the Hephthalite invasions in the 5th century CE. The city suffered devastation in the 6th and 7th centuries due to the shifting course of the Son River, and the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang noted its diminished population in 637 CE. While Pataliputra regained some prominence, it is uncertain if it ever served as the capital of the Pala empire. During the Muslim period from approximately 1200 to 1765, Bihar’s history was largely characterized by its status as a provincial unit. In 1765, Bihar came under British rule and was integrated with Bengal, including the Chota Nagpur region to the south.
British Rule and the Indian Nationalist Movement
Chota Nagpur, initially dominated by forests and aboriginal tribal chiefs, gradually came under British authority during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The region witnessed revolts against British rule, including the Ho revolt (1820-1827) and the Munda uprising (1831-1832). Bihar also played a key role in the Indian Mutiny of 1857-58. Until 1912, Bihar was part of the Bengal Presidency, after which it became the province of Bihar and Orissa. In 1936, Bihar and Orissa became separate provinces under British rule. Bihar was a crucial center for Indian nationalism, with Mahatma Gandhi launching his satyagraha movement in Champaran. Rajendra Prasad, a prominent figure in the freedom movement and the first president of independent India, was born in the Siwan district of Bihar.
Post-Independence and State Reorganization
Following India’s independence in 1947, Bihar became a constituent part of the country, officially becoming a state in 1950. In 1948, the small states of Saraikela and Kharsawan were merged with Bihar. During the reorganization of Indian states based on linguistic lines in 1956, approximately 3,140 square miles of territory was transferred from Bihar to West Bengal. In 1990, Bihar elected a state government from a party different from the national ruling party for the first time since independence. In 2000, the Chota Nagpur plateau in southern Bihar was separated to form the new state of Jharkhand.
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